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    		•  'The building of the tower of Babel' by Pieter Bruegel, 1563 Oil on oak panel, at the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna     Scripture After the flood, the whole earth had one language and few words. ... the LORD said, 'Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language; and this is only the beginning of what they will do; and nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. Come, let us go down, and there confuse their language, that they may not understand one another's speech.' ... its name was called Babel, because there the LORD confused the language of all the earth; and from there the LORD scattered them abroad over the face of all the earth." —Genesis 11:1-9

    Set screen The Roman Alphabet: Graphic Characters and Flags

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    Set screen How Many Languages?

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    Set screen The Study of Languages

    		 

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    Set screen English Language Resources

    • Strunk's concise Elements of Style guide on how to write well. It concentrates attention on the rules of usage and principles of composition most commonly violated. Even though it was written in 1918, it continues to be perhaps the most widely read book on the English language.

    • The American Heritage® Book of English Usage: A Practical and Authoritative Guide to Contemporary English.

    • Both the Writer's Web and Jack Lynch's Guide to Grammar and Style offer interlinked pages listed alphabetically.

    • H.L. Mencken's Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States clarifies the discrepancies between British and American English. This groundbreaking study done 1921 was the most scientific linguistic work on the American language and continues to serve as a definitive resource in the field.

    • On the Art of Writing: Lectures Delivered by Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch in the University of Cambridge, 1913-1914 A classic on the skills needed both to convey and receive the written word, especially English Literature.

      M.A. Ouaknin's “Mysteries of the Alphabet, First Edition”, Abbeville Press, 1999.

      The Gallery of “Misused” Quotation Marks

      There are several formats for formatting attributions in bibliographies and footnotes so readers can find the source material on a document is based.

      • The original MLA style sheet was first published in 1951. The MLA [Modern Language Association] Handbook for Writers of Research Papers 3rd edition (June 1988) by Modern Language Association, Walter S. Achtert, Joseph Gibaldi 0873521323
      • The Kate L. Turabian format allows for a number of different formats.
        • Single spacing within bibliographic entries and footnotes and double spacing between items.

      Example of a book citation:

        Turabian, Kate L. Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (6th ed.) Chicago: University of Chicago Press, March 1996. 0226816273

      Example of a web citation:

        "Africa Backs France on Iraq," BBC News, UK Edition, Thursday, September 13, 2002, 19:10 GMT. Online available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2785239.stm. (Accessed Thursday, February 20, 2003.)

      The dot above the lower case i is called a "tipple".

      DNA sequences (the language of life) are named A, C, T, G.

      Origins of Italics

      Italy is the first book using italic font, in a 1501 edition of Vergil printed in Venice. The publisher, "Aline Press", named from Aldus Manutius, the Latin name of its owner, Teobaldo Mannucci (born 1450), who named the font "italic" in honor of his country, Italy. Until his invention, all type was erect Roman letters.

      Aspect American English British English
      Words color
      organization
      minimize
      program       		colour
      organisation
      minimise
      programme

    		 

      A website external to this site Resources on the English language

      The Rules of Grammar ($12.50)

      The first novel in Middle English is Beouwulf, written around 1000 A.D. It's about Scandanavians (Danes, Swedes, Finns) with Christian allusions.

      Beouwulf, of the Wægmunding family within the Geats clan (also referred to as Geatas) sword named Nægling Heorot in Roskilde Sjaelland Scyld, a mythical Danish king Hrothgar, King of the Danes during Beowulf's visit to Heorot Eadgils, the Swedish King Hengest, leader of the of the Healfdenes Giant Grendel

      Here is a translation into Modern EnglishA website external to this site

      THE PHAOMNNEAL PWEOR OF THE HMUAN MNID

      Aoccdrnig to rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.

      Amzanig huh?

      Hrad to blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty uesdnatnrd waht I was rdgnieg!

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    Set screen Hebrew Language Resources

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    Set screen Greek Language Resources

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      Set screen Ionic Greek Symbols

      Unlike the Hindu place-notation number system commonly used today (with 1,2,3 etc. and especially zero which allow numbers to easily grow without limit), each Classical Greek alphabet (invented around 850BC) has a corresponding value in Greek mathematics. For example (from Revelation 13:16-18):

        cxϛ (chi xi stigma)
        600 + 60 + 6 = 666

      Alternately:

        ciϛ (chi iota stigma)
        600 + 10 + 6 = 616

      Convert UTF-8 characters into Greek and back again

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      Set screen The Greek Alphabet

      Numeric
      value       		Name English
      sound      		 Unicode Symbol
      Uncial
      (Upper)      		 Symbol
      Miniscule
      (Lower)      		 Symbol
      Keystroke
      1 alpha
      a
      		 Α αΆ ά A a A, a
      2 beta
      b
      		 Β β   B b B, b
      3 gamma
      g
      		 Γ γ   G g G, g
      4 delta
      d
      		 Δ δ   D d D, d
      5 epsilon
      e
      		 Ε ε Έ έ E e E, e
      6 stigma
       
      		 Ϛ ϛ       -
      digamma
       
      		 Ϝ ϝ       -
      7 zeta
      z
      		 Ζ ζ   Z z Z, z
      8 eta
      h
      		 Η η Ή ή H h H, h
      9 theta
      th
      		 Θ θ   Q q Q, q
      10 iota
      i
      		 Ι ι Ί Ϊ ί ϊ I i I, i
      20 kappa
      k
      		 Κ κ   K k K, k
      30 lamda
      l
      		 Λ λ   L l L, l
      40 mu
      m
      		 Μ μ   M m M, m
      50 nu
      n
      		 Ν ν   N n N, n
      60 xi
      x
      		 Ξ ξ   X x X, x
      70 omicron
      o
      		 Ο ο Ό ό O o O, o
      80 pi
      p
      		 Π π   P p P, p
      90 koppa
       
      		 Ϙ ϙ       -
      100 rho/pho
      r
      		 Ρ ρ   R r R, r
      200 sigma
      s
      		 Σ ς σ   S V s S, s, V
      300 tao
      t
      		 Τ τ   T t T, t
      400 upsilon
      u
      		 Υ υ Ύ ύ ϋ U u U, u
      500 phi
      ph
      		 Φ φ   F f F, f
      600 chi
      ch
      		 Χ χ   C c C, c
      700 psi
      ps
      		 Ψ ψ   Y y Y, y
      800 omega
      o
      		 Ω ω Ώ ώ W w W, w
      900 sampi
       
      		 Ϡ ϡ       -

      Vowels are shaded grey.

      Modern Greek characters under the symbol column are rendered by default on Microsoft Internet Explorer browsers. But Mozilla/Firefox browsers do not enable the Symbol font by default, so only English characters appear. But this can be fixed this by downloading and installing Wfontfix.exe. This changes the fontEncoding.properties file in default directory \Program Files\mozilla.org\Mozilla\res\fonts\ from

        encoding.symbol.ttf = Adobe-Symbol-Encoding
      to
        encoding.symbol.ttf = windows-1252

      Archaic letters stigma, koppa, etc. appear as a box or ? unless you have copied into your machine's Windows\Fonts folder a Unicodeanother page on this site fontanother page on this site such as the Aristarcoj2.ttf True Type Font file which displays the Greek and Coptic font set (using keystrokes suggested by Chuo-Han Lee) such as the Greek anagram Ichthys (ICQUS):
      Greek (<em lang="gr") English
      IhsouV   Jesus
      CristoV Christos Christ
      Qeou Theos God's
      UioV   Son
      Soter Soter Savior

        Image:Ichthus.svg
        Ichthus.svg‎ (SVG file, nominally 200 × 100 pixels, file size: 516 B)

      This Symbol Keystroke matches the keyboard used by the
      Teknia Greek font which came out of the Standard Mapping Initiative for Greek.

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    Set screen Latin Language Resources

    • Latin Phrase Quotations

      i.e. and e.g.

      e.g., stands for the Latin exempli gratia — which means “for the sake of example”. Use "e.g." when listing examples.

        large dogs, e.g., Saint Bernards and Great Danes.

      i.e., stands for the Latin id est — which means “that is”. Reminder The English "in essence" uses the same letters! So use "i.e." to explain the subject of a sentence.

        hogs, i.e., swine weighing over 180 pounds.

    		 

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    Set screen Spanish Language Resources

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    Set screen Morse Code

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